A Short Digital Maps Project Exploring Homer's Iliad

Full many a host in line of battle rang'd My eyes have seen; but such a force as this, So mighty and so vast, I ne'er beheld: In number as the leaves, or as the sand, Against the city o'er the plain they come. Then, Hector, for to thee I chiefly speak, This do; thou know'st how various our allies, Of diff'rent nations and discordant tongues: Let each then those command o'er whom he reigns, And his own countrymen in arms array." She said; and Hector knew the voice divine, And all, dissolv'd the council, flew to arms, The gates were open'd wide; forth pour'd the crowd, Both foot and horse; and loud the tumult rose.

Before the city stands a lofty mound, In the mid plain, by open space enclos'd; Men call it Batiaea; but the Gods The tomb of swift Myrinna; muster'd there The Trojans and Allies their troops array'd. 

The mighty Hector of the glancing helm, The son of Priam, led the Trojan host: The largest and the bravest band were they, Bold spearmen all, who follow'd him in arms. Anchises' valiant son, AEneas, led The Dardans; him, 'mid Ida's jutting peaks, Immortal Venus to Anchises bore, A Goddess yielding to a mortal's love: With him, well skill'd in war, Archilochus And Acamas, Antenor's gallant sons.

Homer. The Iliad (Kindle Locations 548-556). Public Domain Books. Kindle Edition.

     After reading the passage above, observe the geographical features of the ancient city of Troy itself from Google Earth.  (Today referred to as Troia, Turkey.)  The second photo is from April 2016, and I have included it because of the illumination it provides of the potential fertility of the area.  With regards to the passage, pay particularly close attention to the second paragraph.  If you look carefully at the images, you can clearly see the rise or mound upon which the city rested, more secure in this vantage point from approaching enemies.  The third image provided is a more distant view of the area from above to convey greater context.

     The following image conveys a sense of the great journey Odysseus took by ship to reach Troy from Ithaca—and, of course, the much longer journey home. 

     The image directly above, courtesy OpenCulture.com, displays the hometowns of the cast of characters from the Iliad.  It has been pointed out by others, however, that most of the women—including Helen—have not been included.  

     While it may never be known whether, or not, Odysseus was based upon a real man, myths have a way of solidifying around that kernel of truth.  Since Troy has been demonstrated as having existed, perhaps there is more truth than fantasy to Homer’s epic works.  If so, these journeys represent an astonishing accomplishment for the period.

Christianity Before Emperor Constantine

     Early Christianity under Roman rule suffered unspeakable cruelties and acts of barbarism by the Roman authorities.  In order to understand the deeper conflict, it's helpful to take a step back to understand the historical context with more clarity.
     The following passage from Robert Hughes' Rome examines the Christian understanding of what it meant to be living in what they were certain represented the end times.  (See the 24th chapter of the Gospel of Matthew.)

Christianity did not believe that such prophecies, promises, and threats were in any way metaphorical. They were truthful in essence, and soon would be in fact as well: not in the distant future, but imminently, within this generation. Rome was doomed to be destroyed in a few years, in a few decades at most. The New Testament had not been written yet, but such beliefs were preached, described, made part of the essential public lore of the new religion and its adherents. To them, it made perfect sense, because it was Revealed Truth. But it also made sense to the Roman authorities, sense of a different kind. It meant that the Galileans wanted this promised destruction...

     The last couple sentences are a little bit of an eye opener for me. It doesn't, of course, excuse any of the Roman persecution or brutality, but it demonstrates at least a pretext of rationalization--rather than simple sadism and evil. To make an aside here, I think it's worth pointing out that different emperors held different levels of tolerance for the Christians. Madness and vile hatred clearly fueled Nero's attack upon them, for instance, but others weren't quite so ferociously intent on murdering them; they didn't understand the new and mysterious sect.

     Speaking of Emperor Nero, I encourage you to read Father Bruce Vawter's short book, Revelation: A Divine Message of Hope. It does a splendid job exploring the religious and symbolic context of the book of Revelation, demonstrating it as an important offer of hope for the early persecuted Church. I also suggest that passages such as Mark 13:32 and the issue of the Second Coming potentially reveals an incredible insight into the humanity of Christ. Was there, for instance, a lack of intimate knowledge visible in chapters such as Matthew 24? Did Christ Himself believe the Second Coming was coming within a matter of years? He might have been speaking metaphorically, but, either way, it offers a fascinating insight into the mind of Christ.

     Returning to the main topic of exploration here, I think it's also helpful to read the following excerpt from a letter of reply from Emperor Trajan to Pliny the Elder. This is taken from The Great Documents of Western Civilization by Milton Viorist, a wonderful Christmas present from my late uncle Phil Rand.

You have adopted the proper course, my dear Secundus, in your examination of the cases of those who were accused to you as Christians, for indeed nothing can be laid down as a general ruling involving something like a set form of procedure. They are not to be sought out; but if they are accused and convicted, they must be punished--yet on this condition, that whoso denies himself to be a Christian, and makes the fact plain by his action, that is, by worshiping our gods, shall obtain pardon on his repentance, however suspicious his past conduct may be. Papers, however, which are presented unsigned ought not to be admitted in any charge, for they are a very bad example and unworthy of our time.

I'd like to particularly draw your attention to that last sentence, which I've highlighted here. This is yet another example of the importance of the rule of law to the Romans; even the Christians had rights--well, before some emperors, at least.

Painting by Peter Paul Rubens

The Magic of Concrete

"Italy Sulmona view of the Roman aqueduct with the Del Vecchio fountain in the foreground"

     

In the fourth chapter of Robert Hughes' Rome, A Cultural Visual, and Personal History, my attention is drawn to the historic architectural breakthrough of concrete.

With concrete, the Romans could build aqueducts, arches, domes, and roads; it opened up means of rapid transport, storage, and defense that had not existed in earlier masonry cultures. Concrete built hundreds of bridges, which gave the Roman army swift access to the most remote parts of the Empire. The stuff of power and discipline--it was ugly and always would be--the brief mid-twentieth-century vogue for beaton brut, produced some of the most hideous, grime-attracting surfaces in all architecture, as a visit to London's Festival Hall will confirm. But it could be rendered with stucco or faced with thin sheets of stone, and it was very strong and cheap, allowing the the construction of very large structures.


Hughes, Robert. Rome: A Cultural, Visual, and 
     Personal History. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
     2011. Print.

(Illustrative links added for blog; they were not selected by Hughes.)


It's hard to believe that something as ugly and "ordinary" as concrete could have such an effect upon history, but it certainly made its mark. In the prior post, for instance, I endeavored to focus upon the significance of the abundant fresh water in Rome, and this would have been impossible without the concrete aqueducts. It was, in effect, the bridge between thought and idea and reality: the malleable stuff of emperor's dreams.

     As a fellow who has to work in one of those concrete government buildings, I'm a little ambivalent about my topic of choice here. Still, it seems this was one of the materials or tools that really enabled Roman culture and genius to thrive. (As John D. Spalding observes in his essay "Spreading the Word," from Heldref Publications, the Roman system of roads also greatly facilitated the spreading of the Gospel.)

Sunstone and Fountains

     In the prologue of Robert Hughes' book on Rome, he quotes the opening lines from Octavio Paz's poem entitled "Piedra del Sol."  Here is the passage in both English and Spanish.
     In part, I think the poem's resonance with me centers on the way it begins to catch and convey the mysterious nature of flowing water. The shapes it reveals, the endless eddies and currents, reflect a mysterious quality when viewed closely; it is never the same twice.  With regards to the study abroad posts, I intend to continue to focus upon water in its symbolic as well as its life-giving nature.

SUNSTONE THE POEM

Sunstone | Octavio Paz willow of crystal, a poplar of water,  a pillar of fountain by the wind drawn over,  tree that is firmly rooted and that dances,  turning course of a river that goes curving,  advances and retreats, goes roundabout,  arriving forever:  the calm course of a star  or the spring, appearing without urgency,  water behind a stillness of closed eyelids  flowing all night and pouring out prophecies,  a single presence in the procession of waves  wave over wave until all is overlapped,  in a green sovereignty without decline  a bright hallucination of many wings  when they all open at the height of the sky... PIEDRA DE SOL Piedra de sol | Octavio Paz Un sauce de cristal, un chopo de agua,  un alto surtidor que el viento arquea,  un árbol bien plantado mas danzante,  un caminar de río que se curva,  avanza, retrocede, da un rodeo  y llega siempre:                        un caminar tranquilo  de estrella o primavera sin premura,  agua que con los párpados cerrados  mana toda la noche profecías,  unánime presencia en oleaje,  ola tras ola hasta cubrirlo todo,  verde soberanía sin ocaso  como el deslumbramiento de las alas  cuando se abren en mitad del cielo...

     

Roman Draining of Fucine Lake

     

     One of the great wonders of ancient Rome was its ingenious strategy for bringing fresh water into the city.  With its stunning creation of aqueducts and underground system of lead pipes, it truly was called “regina aquarium, the queen of the waters.”  (Hughes, 64)  Visitors from afar must have been astonished at the abundance of clean running water within the city.  This abundance of water was a critical factor in enabling Rome’s population to expand so freely with each passing century.  According to Robert Hughes in Rome, A Cultural, Visual, and Personal History, maintaining this flow of fresh water into Rome was a complex and daunting task.

Before it could flow out of Rome, of course, the water had to flow in.  It did so mainly through aqueducts.  Eleven of these supplied the city with its drinking and washing water, eight entering by the region of the Esquiline Hill.  Four more were added after the popes replaced the emperors, two of them in the twentieth century.  No other ancient city had such a copious supply of water…  (Hughes, 64)

It is indeed strange and disturbing to pause a moment and consider that Rome’s water system before the time of Christ was arguably a better system than currently available today in impoverished areas of the United States—e.g. the Navajo of northwestern New Mexico.  (NPR, web)  Clean water, it seems, is something so quickly taken for granted by western civilization, but the development of a rich culture and learning is inseparably tied to its availability.

     One of the most impressive examples of aqueduct engineering in ancient Rome must be the draining of Fucine Lake in the time of Emperor Claudius (10 B.C.E-54 C.E.).  (Hughes. 102)  As visible in the map below, note the great distance between Rome and this lake to the northeast.  (Click for a larger view.)

Information available from NASA’s website reveals just how great a feat of engineering this truly was.

…Emperors Claudius and Hadrian achieved limited draining of the original lake—to control both flooding and malaria—by digging and then expanding a tunnel through the hills near Avezzano at the top of the image. Claudius used 30,000 workers over a span of ten years to dig the 5.6-kilometer-long tunnel. This engineering work reduced the size of the lake from an original area of about 140 square kilometers to about 57 square kilometers. (NASA, web)  

     The momentous act of tunneling these drainage lines through a mountain and hills, constantly having to be aware of complex issues such as slope and grade as well as natural barriers, and without the benefit of modern equipment is an awe-inspiring accomplishment.

The canal by which the water should be conveyed away, was to be formed in part by a deep cut, and partly by a tunnel through a mountain; and inasmuch as in those days the power now chiefly relied upon for making such excavations, namely, the explosive force of gunpowder, was not known, any extensive working in solid rock was an operation of immense labor.  (Abbott, 64)

     Of course, the loss of life in these public works projects must have been horrible—especially when one considers that most of the labor was done by slaves. Robert Hughes observed that the draining of Fucine Lake “almost proved a disaster; because of a miscalculation by the engineers, the lake waters came rushing out too soon and backed-up in a too-narrow sluice, nearly drowning Claudius and his party, for whom a great banquet had been prepared on the bank of the channel.” (Hughes, 103) If accidents like this happened even to the emperor, then one can only guess at how often death and permanent injury befell the exploited laborers upon these projects. Besides the gold and treasure required to fund immense public works projects such as this, it is also true to say that they were paid for in the blood, sweat, and tears of the workers and slaves who toiled each day to bring these grand visions to reality.

Cited Sources

Abbott, Jacob. History of Nero ... With Engravings. New York: n.p., 1867. Print.

Hughes, Robert. Rome: A Cultural, Visual, and Personal History. New York:

       Alfred A. Knopf, 2011. Print.

"Lake Fucine, Italy: Image of the Day." NASA. NASA, n.d. Web. 30 July 2017.

Morales, Laurel. "For Many Navajo, A Visit From The 'Water Lady' Is A

       Refreshing Sight." NPR. NPR, 06 Jan. 2015. Web. 30 July 2017.

Robert Hughes' Rome

Roman helmet

What about defense?  On the collective level of the army on the march, the Romans displayed unique fortitude and energy in self-protection.  Knowing that "barbarians" in occupied territories were likely to attack at night, when the Roman invaders were tired from the day's exertions and darkness was likely to favor confusion and panic, the Romans did not end their day's labor at the finish of each day's march.  They first put up a camp: not a mere array of tents, but a fully fortified square castrum or encampment, almost an overnight town, with a wall, a ditch (produced by digging up the earth to throw up the wall), and everything that was necessary to protect the mass of troops.

Rome, A Cultural, Visual, and Personal History by Robert Hughes

Reading Hughes' Rome has been a pleasure. The details, like the excerpt above, makes for a very interesting read.  The Roman legions have always fascinated me, and these accounts really catch not only one's interest, but also one's sense of imagination--even wonder.  Further on in the same paragraph, there is a discussion of the severe punishment, which included banishment, of the sentry who fails in his duties.  To imagine the discipline and ultimate commitment of these soldiers makes the story of the disappearance of the Ninth Roman Legion beyond Hadrian's Wall in Roman Britain even more mysterious and thought-provoking.  It's these insights that really give this book its rich character; it's conveying a history less about mere dates and more about important people and practices.

Surprisingly, this book created some early controversy regarding excessive factual errors.  For more information, see this article.  

Romulus and Remus and the Origins of Rome

     When it comes to the the founding of Rome, one may turn to writers such as Livy, who described Romulus and Remus as twins whom the king ordered drowned in the Tiber.  Thankfully for Roman history, the Tiber lay flooded, and they were placed only along its swollen banks.  The following excerpt continues the account of their rescue.    

[1.4]  But neither gods nor men sheltered her or her babes from the king's cruelty; the priestess was thrown into prison, the boys were ordered to be thrown into the river. By a heaven-sent chance it happened that the Tiber was then overflowing its banks, and stretches of standing water prevented any approach to the main channel. Those who were carrying the children expected that this stagnant water would be sufficient to drown them, so under the impression that they were carrying out the king's orders they exposed the boys at the nearest point of the overflow, where the Ficus Ruminalis (said to have been formerly called Romularis) now stands. The locality was then a wild solitude. The tradition goes on to say that after the floating cradle in which the boys had been exposed had been left by the retreating water on dry land, a thirsty she-wolf from the surrounding hills, attracted by the crying of the children, came to them, gave them her teats to suck and was so gentle towards them that the king's flock-master found her licking the boys with her tongue. According to the story, his name was Faustulus. He took the children to his hut and gave them to his wife Larentia to bring up. 

The History of Rome by Livy (Titus Livius)

     It's interesting how Virgil's Aeneid (Greek) and the important Italian story of Romulus and become reconciled, as Wikipedia puts it.  (It's also intriguing to note that both Livy and Virgil lived almost at the same time in history; Livy passed on in 17 AD, which is less than fifty years after Virgil died.)  Livy's account connects itself with the Italian legend by making Romulus and Remus descendants of Aeneas and his son, Ascanius.